Bojs Incarcerated Parents and Their Childern 2000
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U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report Incarcerated Parents and Their Children By Christopher J. Mumola BJS Policy Analyst In 1999 State and Federal prisons held an estimated 721,500 parents of minor children. A majority of State (55%) and Federal (63%) prisoners reported having a child under the age of 18. Forty-six percent of the parents reported living with their children prior to admission. As a result, there were an estimated 336,300 U.S. households with minor children affected by the imprisonment of a resident parent. August 2000, NCJ 182335 Highlights In 1999 an estimated 721,500 State and Federal prisoners were parents to 1,498,800 children under age 18 Minor children Percent of prisoners, 1997 State Federal Any 1 2 3 or more 55.4% 23.8 15.8 15.8 63.0% 24.0 18.5 20.5 None 44.6% 37.0% Estimated number of minor children, 1999 1,324,900 173,900 ù Since 1991 the number of minor children with a parent in State or Federal prison rose by over 500,000; from 936,500 to 1,498,800 in 1999. ù The percentage of State and Federal prisoners with minor children (56%) changed little since 1991 (57%). ù 22% of all minor children with a parent in prison were under 5 years old. Parents held in U.S prisons had an estimated 1,498,800 minor children in 1999, an increase of over 500,000 since 1991. Of the Nation’s 72 million minor children, 2.1% had a parent in State or Federal prison in 1999. Prior to admission, less than half of the parents in State prison reported living with their children — 44% of fathers, 64% of mothers Lived with children prior to admission 43.8% 64.3% A majority of parents in State prison were violent offenders (44%) or drug traffickers (13%), and 77% had a prior conviction. Nearly 60% of parents in State prison reported using drugs in the month before their offense, and 25% reported a history of alcohol dependence. About 14% of parents reported a mental illness, and 70% did not have a high school diploma. Current caregiver* Child's other parent Child's grandparent Other relative Foster home/agency Friends/other 89.6% 13.3 4.9 1.8 4.9 25.7 9.6 10.4 This report is the latest in a series based on the 1997 Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities. Other BJS Special Reports in this series have addressed substance abuse and treatment, mental health, women and juvenile offenders, and inmates’ military service. Percent of State inmate parents, 1997 Male Female ù About 46% of parents in prison lived with their children prior to admission. ù About 90% of fathers in State prison said that at least one of their children now lived with their mother; 28% of 28.0% mothers said the father was the child’s 52.9 current caregiver. ù 10% of mothers and 2% of fathers in State prison reported a child now *Some prisoners had children in different homes. living in a foster home or agency. Nearly 2 in 3 State prisoners reported at least monthly contact with their children by phone, mail, or personal visits Type of contact Any Phone Mail Visits Percent of State inmate parents reporting monthly contact with their children, 1997 Male Female 62.4% 78.4% 42.0% 49.9 21.0 53.6% 65.8 23.8 ù 40% of fathers and 60% of mothers in State prison reported weekly contact with their children. ù A majority of both fathers (57%) and mothers (54%) in State prison reported never having a personal visit with their children since admission. ù Over 60% of parents in State prison reported being held over 100 miles from their last place of residence. Twenty-two percent of all minor children with a parent in prison were under 5 years old. The majority (58%) of the minor children reported by State When interviewed during the 1997 and Federal inmates were less than 10 years old, and the average age of Surveys of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities, a major- these children was 8 years old. ity of prisoners said that they were the Percent of minor children of parents in State parent of at least one child under age Age or Federal prison, 1997 18 (table 1). Fifty-five percent of State year Less than 1 2.1% prisoners and 63% of Federal prison1-4 years 20.4 ers reported having a minor child. 5-9 years 35.1 Among State prisoners, women (65%) 10-14 years 28.0 15-17 years 14.5 were more likely than men (55%) to have minor children. In Federal Mean 8 years prisons, similar percentages of men State and Federal prisons held (63%) and women (59%) had a minor an estimated 721,500 parents child. of minor children in 1999 Thirty-two percent of all prisoners said At yearend 1999 there were 1,284,894 that they had multiple minor children. prisoners in the custody of State and About 24% of both State and Federal prisoners reported one minor child, but Federal prisons, including an estimated 721,500 parents with minor children Federal inmates (39%) were more (table 2). Imprisoned parents were likely than State inmates (32%) to male (93%) and held predominantly report multiple children. Among State in State prisons (89%). In 1999 State prisoners, 45% of women had multiple and Federal prisons held an estimated children compared to 31% of men. Over half of both State and Federal prisoners reported having a child under age 18 Table 1. Percent of State and Federal prisoners with minor children, by gender, 1997 Percent of prisoners, 1997 State Federal Male Female Total Male Total 1.5 million children in the U.S. had a parent in prison in 1999 — up by more than 500,000 since 1991 The number of children with a parent in prison also rose dramatically during the 1990’s. In 1991, there were an estimated 936,500 minor children with a parent in State or Federal prison. By yearend 1999, this number had risen by more than a half-million to an estimated 1,498,800 minor children. Of the Nation’s 72.3 million minor children in 1999, 2.1% had a parent in State or Federal prison. Black children (7.0%) were nearly 9 times more likely to have a parent in prison than white children (0.8%). Hispanic children (2.6%) were 3 times as likely as white children to have an inmate parent. Minor children in the U.S. resident population with a parent in prison, 1999 Number Percent U.S. total* 44.6% 55.4 45.3% 54.7 34.7% 65.3 37.0% 63.0 36.6% 63.4 41.2% 58.8 Number of minor children 1 2 3 4 5 6 or more 23.8% 15.8 8.7 4.1 1.7 1.3 24.0% 15.6 8.4 3.9 1.6 1.3 20.5% 18.7 13.7 7.3 3.6 1.6 24.0% 18.5 11.1 5.0 2.3 2.1 24.0% 18.7 11.3 5.1 2.2 2.2 24.5% 17.1 9.7 4.1 2.7 0.7 Table 2. Estimated number of State and Federal prisoners with minor children, by gender, 1999 Total Number of minor children 1999 1991 Since 1991 the custody population of State and Federal prisons grew by over 490,000 inmates, an increase of 62%. As a result, the number of parents in prison also grew sharply — by over 250,000 — from the 452,500 held in State and Federal prison in 1991. Female Have minor children (under age 18) No Yes Number of parents 1999 1991 667,900 fathers and 53,600 mothers of minor children. State prisoners Male Female 642,300 413,100 Federal prisoners Total Male Female 593,800 386,500 48,500 26,600 79,200 39,400 74,100 36,500 5,100 2,900 1,324,900 1,209,400 852,300 794,500 115,500 57,800 173,900 84,200 163,300 78,300 10,600 5,900 Note: Numbers are estimates based on responses to the 1991 and 1997 Surveys of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities, and custody counts from the National Prisoners Statistics program. 2 Incarcerated Parents and Their Children 1,498,800 2.1% White 384,500 0.8% Black 767,200 7.0 Hispanic 301,600 2.6 Note: Children were assumed to have the same race/ethnicity as the incarcerated parent. *Includes children of other races. At yearend 1999 an estimated 1,372,700 minor children had a father in State or Federal prison, while another 126,100 children had a mother in prison. Since 1990 the number of all female prisoners has grown faster (106%) than that of male prisoners (75%). As a result, the number of children with a mother in prison nearly doubled (up 98%) since 1991, while the number of children with a father in prison grew by 58% during this period. Nearly half of all imprisoned parents were black; about a quarter were white parents in Federal prison said that they had never been married, compared to 49% of the nonparents. Among both State and Federal prisoners with minor children, blacks comprised the largest racial/ethnic group (table 3). In State prisons, 49% of parents were black, 29% white, and 19% Hispanic. Among nonparent State prisoners, the percentage of blacks (43%) and Hispanics (15%) were slightly lower, but the percentage of whites was higher (39%). A majority of parents in both State (70%) and Federal (55%) prison reported that they did not have a high school diploma. Similar percentages of parents in State (16%) and Federal (20%) prison graduated high school, Blacks (44%) were the largest racial/ ethnic group among parents in Federal prison, followed by Hispanics (30%) and whites (22%). The racial distribution was almost reversed among Federal prisoners without minor children. Whites made up 43% of nonparent inmates, while blacks accounted for 27% of nonparents. Nonparents in Federal prison were also less likely to be Hispanic (23%). Parents in State prison were slightly younger than those in Federal prison. Parents in State prison (16%) were about twice as likely as those in Federal prison (8%) to be age 24 or younger. Overall, the median age of parents in State prison was 32 years old, compared to 35 years old among parents in Federal prison. In State prison, the median age of nonparents was similar (33 years) to that of parents. In Federal prison, the median age of nonparents (40 years) was 5 years greater than that of prisoners with minor children. but college attendance was nearly twice as high among parents in Federal prison (25% compared to 13% in State prisons). About 12% of parents in both State and Federal prison said that they had not been educated past the eighth grade. Overall, nonparents in both State and Federal prison reported similar levels of education as inmate parents. Table 3. Selected characteristics of State or Federal prisoners, by whether the inmates were parents of minor children, 1997 Percent of prisoners, 1997 State Federal Parents Nonparents Parents Nonparents Gender Male Female 92.6% 7.4 95.2% 4.8 93.2% 6.8 91.9% 8.1 Race/Hispanic origin White non-Hispanic Black non-Hispanic Hispanic Other 28.9% 49.4 18.9 2.8 38.9% 42.8 14.5 3.8 21.9% 44.0 30.0 4.0 43.4% 27.0 22.9 6.7 Age 24 or younger 25-34 35-44 45-54 55 or older 15.8% 44.9 32.1 6.6 0.6 25.0% 30.1 26.0 13.3 5.6 7.8% 41.8 35.1 12.8 2.5 11.3% 27.9 23.0 22.1 15.8 32 yr 33 yr 35 yr 40 yr Marital status Married Widowed Divorced Separated Never married 23.0% 1.6 20.5 7.2 47.7 8.7% 2.2 16.1 3.9 69.2 35.8% 1.6 19.0 6.0 37.6 21.2% 1.8 22.9 5.3 48.8 Education completed 8th grade or less Some high school GED High school graduate Some college or more 12.7% 27.1 30.6 16.1 13.4 15.5% 23.6 32.6 14.9 13.4 11.5% 16.7 27.0 19.8 25.0 11.9% 10.7 26.5 20.8 30.1 Median Half of the parents in State prison were never married Of the parents in State prison, 23% said that they were currently married, 28% were divorced or separated, and 48% said that they had never been married. In comparison, nonparents in State prison were less than half as likely to be currently married (9%), and 69% said that they had never married. While parents in Federal prison (36%) were more likely than those in State prison to be married, a similar percentage (25%) were either divorced or separated. Thirty-eight percent of Table 4. Percent of inmate parents in State or Federal prison who lived with their minor children at time of admission, by gender, 1997 Total Percent of inmate parents, 1997 State Federal Male Female Total Male Female Lived with children at time of admission 45.3% 43.8% 64.3% 57.2% 55.2% 84.0% Child's current caregivera Other parent of child Grandparent of child Other relatives Foster home or agency Friends, othersb 87.6% 91.7% 30.7% 12.2 9.8 44.9 6.2 4.2 33.9 1.3 1.1 3.2 6.8 6.4 11.9 85.0% 89.6% 28.0% 16.3 13.3 52.9 6.4 4.9 25.7 2.4 1.8 9.6 5.3 4.9 10.4 a Detail may add to more than 100% because some prisoners had multiple children living with multiple caregivers. b Includes cases where parent reported that the child now lived alone. Incarcerated Parents and Their Children 3 Fewer than half of the parents in State prison lived with their minor children prior to incarceration Prior to their admission, 46% of all imprisoned parents lived with any of their minor children (table 4). Among parents in State prison, 45% said that they lived with at least one of their minor children compared to 57% of parents in Federal prison. Mothers and fathers in prison differed sharply in their responses to questions about their children’s current caregivers. Ninety percent of the fathers in State prison reported that at least one of their children was in the care of the child’s mother, compared to 28% of mothers who reported that one of their children was in the care of the child’s father. One-third of mothers in prison had been living alone with their children in the month before arrest In the month prior to their current arrest, the households of most parents in prison did not include their children (table 5). Thirty-seven percent of parents in State prison said that they lived with any of their minor children in the month before their arrest. The Mothers in State prison most often parents who had lived with their identified the child’s grandparent (53%) children were split between those who Mothers were more likely than fathers or other relatives (26%) as the current to report living with their children prior had lived with both a spouse and the to admission. About 64% of mothers in caregiver. The percentage of fathers child (20%) and those who were the in State prison who said that they had a only parent living with the child (18%). State prison and 84% of those in Among parents in Federal prison, a Federal prison reported living with their minor child in the care of either grandparents (13%) or other relatives (5%) minor children prior to admission, higher percentage of parents (49%) was much smaller. Mothers in State reported living with their children in the compared to 44% and 55% of fathers, prison (10%) were also more likely month before arrest, and a higher respectively. than fathers (2%) to report that their percentage (32%) came from children were in the care of a foster Because most inmate parents did not two-parent households. home, agency, or institution. live with their children prior to incarMothers in both State (58%) and ceration, the number of households Mothers and fathers in Federal prison Federal (73%) prisons were more likely with children affected by the imprisonthan fathers (36% and 47%, respecment of a resident parent is lower than also provided differing reports about their children’s current caregivers. tively) to report living with their children the total number of parents in prison. prior to arrest. Mothers (46% of State, At yearend 1999 an estimated 336,300 Nearly all fathers in Federal prison (92%) said that they had a minor child U.S. households with minor children 51% of Federal) were also more likely in the care of the child’s mother, than fathers (15% and 14%, respechad a resident parent in State or tively) to have been the only parent Federal prison. A total of 300,900 U.S. compared to 31% of mothers who reported the child’s father as the living with the children in the month households with minor children were before their arrest. Thirty-one percent missing a resident father in prison, and current caregiver. As with State inmates, a greater share of mothers resident mothers were missing from of the mothers in prison had been living than fathers in Federal prison said that alone with their children compared to 35,400 households. a child was in the care of grandparents 4% of fathers. Estimated households (45% compared to 10%) or other with minor children affected relatives (34% compared to 4%). by the imprisonment of a resident parent, 1999 Total 336,300 State prison Fathers Mothers 291,000 259,900 31,100 Federal prison Fathers Mothers 45,300 41,000 4,300 Table 5. Households of inmate parents in State or Federal prison, by gender, 1997 Total Percent of inmate parents, 1997 State Federal Male Female Total Male 37.3% 35.6% 58.5% 49.0% 47.2% 73.4% In two-parent household Parents and children only With other relativesb With non-relatives only 19.6% 18.2 1.2 0.2 20.2% 18.7 1.3 0.2 12.5% 11.7 0.7 0.1 32.2% 29.4 2.0 0.8 32.9% 30.1 2.1 0.7 22.1% 19.6 1.2 1.3 In single-parent household Parent and children only With other relativesb With non-relatives only 17.7% 5.9 1.3 10.5 15.4% 3.9 1.0 10.5 46.0% 30.9 4.3 10.8 16.8% 6.3 0.7 9.8 14.3% 4.2 0.4 9.7 51.3% 34.8 4.9 11.6 62.7% 64.4% 41.5% 51.0% 52.8% 26.6% Prisoner's household in the month before arrest Lived with their children a Fathers cite child’s mother as the current caregiver; mothers cite child’s grandparents, other relatives When asked who is currently caring for their minor children, over 80% of inmate parents said that their child was now living with the child’s other parent. About 20% of parents cited grandparents and other relatives as caregivers, and 2% had a child in a foster home, agency, or institution. Did not live with their children a Two-parent households are those in which the prisoner lived with both their child(ren) and a spouse. b Includes the prisoners' step-parents, stepchildren, stepbrothers, and stepsisters. 4 Incarcerated Parents and Their Children Female 40% of fathers and 60% of mothers in State prison had at least weekly contact with their children Most parents in both State (80%) and Federal (93%) prison reported having some contact with their children since their admission, either by telephone, mail, or personal visits (table 6). Among State inmates, 69% reported exchanging letters with their children, 58% had spoken with their children over the telephone, and 43% had received a personal visit since admission. Higher percentages of parents in Federal prison reported all types of contact, with telephone calls and letters each reported by 84% of parents and personal visits reported by 56% of parents. In State prisons, mothers consistently reported more frequent contact with their children than fathers. Mothers (78%) were more likely than fathers (62%) to report some type of monthly contact with their children, and 60% of mothers reported at least weekly contact compared to 40% of fathers. Nearly 40% of mothers in State prison said that they spoke to their children by telephone at least once a week, and 45% reported weekly mail contact with their children. In comparison, fathers reported weekly contact by telephone (25%) or mail (27%) at lower rates. However, the frequency of personal visits did not vary by gender. Similar percentages of both mothers (24%) and fathers (21%) in State prison reported at least monthly visits from their children. A majority of both mothers (54%) and fathers (57%) had never been visited by their children since entering prison. Among Federal inmates, mothers and fathers had more similar levels of contact with their children. About 70% of mothers and 60% of fathers had some type of weekly contact with their children. Among mothers in Federal prison, 56% reported weekly telephone calls and 45% reported weekly mail contact, compared to 49% and 34% of fathers, respectively. Similar percentages of mothers (20%) and fathers (23%) reported monthly visits, and just over 40% of both had never been visited since admission. Table 6. Frequency of telephone, mail, and personal contacts with children by parents in State or Federal prison, 1997 Frequency and type of contact with children Total Percent of inmate parents, 1997 State Federal Male Female Total Male Any type of contact Daily or almost daily At least once a week At least once a month Less than once a month Never 10.1% 31.2 22.2 16.1 20.4 9.5% 30.3 22.6 16.6 21.1 17.8% 42.4 18.0 9.7 12.2 15.1% 43.7 23.8 10.0 7.5 14.6% 43.4 23.9 10.3 7.8 21.1% 48.5 22.0 5.0 3.3 Telephone Daily or almost daily At least once a week At least once a month Less than once a month Never 6.6% 19.8 16.5 15.4 41.8 6.2% 19.2 16.6 15.5 42.5 11.3% 27.0 15.3 13.8 32.6 13.0% 36.3 23.2 11.3 16.2 12.8% 35.9 23.1 11.4 16.7 15.0% 41.2 24.9 9.2 9.7 Mail Daily or almost daily At least once a week At least once a month Less than once a month Never 4.8% 23.2 23.1 18.2 30.8 4.4% 22.2 23.3 18.6 31.6 9.6% 35.6 20.6 13.2 21.0 4.3% 30.4 30.4 18.9 16.1 3.9% 30.0 30.5 19.2 16.4 9.5% 35.9 27.8 14.5 12.3 Personal visits Daily or almost daily At least once a week At least once a month Less than once a month Never 0.8% 6.6 13.9 22.2 56.6 0.7% 6.5 13.8 22.2 56.8 1.1% 8.0 14.7 22.1 54.1 0.4% 7.1 15.1 33.4 44.1 0.3% 7.1 15.3 33.0 44.2 0.9% 6.6 12.0 38.5 42.0 Female Over 60% of parents in State prison were held more than 100 miles from their last place of residence A majority of parents in both State (62%) and Federal (84%) prison were held more than 100 miles from their last place of residence. However, parents in State prison (17%) were twice as likely as those in Federal prison (7%) to be housed within 50 miles of their last residence. Parents in State facilities (11%) were also less likely than those in Federal prison (43%) to be held over 500 miles from their last household. Distance of prison from last place of residence Less than 50 miles 50-100 miles 101-500 miles More than 500 miles Percent of inmate parents, 1997 State Federal 17.4% 20.7 51.2 10.7 7.5% 8.5 40.7 43.3 A majority of parents in prison were violent offenders or drug traffickers In both State (57%) and Federal (61%) prison, a majority of the parents were sentenced for either violent offenses, such as homicide, sexual assault, and robbery, or drug trafficking activities (table 7). Violent offenses (44%) were the most common type of crime for which parents were serving time in State prison, while 67% of the parents in Federal prison were drug offenders. Among State prisoners, parents (44%) were less likely than nonparents (51%) to be violent offenders. Parents in State prison were more likely to be serving a sentence for drug offenses (24%) than nonparents (17%). Current Percent of State prisoners, 1997 offense Parents Nonparents Violent 43.9% 51.1% Property 21.6 22.5 Drug 23.9 16.7 Public-order 10.3 9.3 Incarcerated Parents and Their Children 5 Table 7. Current offense of inmate parents in State or Federal prison, by gender, 1997 Current offense Total Percent of inmate parents, 1997 State Federal Male Female Total Male Violent offenses Homicidea Sexual assaultb Robbery Assault Other violent 43.9% 10.9 8.3 13.2 9.7 1.8 45.4% 11.1 8.8 13.8 9.9 1.8 26.0% 8.6 1.7 6.4 7.2 2.1 11.9% 1.2 0.7 7.8 1.3 0.9 12.3% 1.2 0.8 8.1 1.3 0.9 6.5% 1.3 0.1 3.4 1.3 0.4 Property offenses Burglary Larceny Motor vehicle theft Fraud Stolen property Other property 21.6% 10.2 4.6 1.5 2.8 1.6 0.9 21.1% 10.6 4.3 1.6 2.1 1.7 0.9 28.3% 5.4 8.5 1.2 11.3 1.3 0.6 5.3% 0.3 0.4 0.2 3.7 0.4 0.3 4.9% 0.3 0.4 0.3 3.3 0.4 0.3 10.3% 0.1 0.3 0.0 8.9 0.6 0.3 Drug offenses Possession Trafficking Other drug 23.9% 10.1 13.1 0.7 23.0% 9.7 12.7 0.6 35.1% 14.8 19.0 1.3 67.2% 12.9 48.9 5.4 66.7% 13.1 48.0 5.6 73.9% 9.7 61.0 3.2 Public-order offenses Weapons Other public-order 10.3% 2.7 7.6 10.3% 2.8 7.5 10.4% 0.9 9.5 14.6% 6.9 7.8 15.1% 7.3 7.9 7.9% 1.1 6.7 0.2% 0.2% 0.3% 1.0% 0.9% 1.5% Other/unspecified a b Female Includes murder and manslaughter. Includes rape and other sexual assaults. Table 8. Maximum sentence length and time to be served until release of State and Federal prisoners with minor children, by gender, 1997 Total Maximum sentence length Less than 12 months 12-35 months 36-59 months 60-119 months 120-179 months 180-239 months 240+ months Life/death Meana Estimated total time to be served on current sentenceb Less than 24 months 24-47 months 48-71 months 72-119 months 120-179 months 180-239 months 240+ months No release expected Do not know Meanc 3.1% 13.1 13.2 22.5 14.0 8.9 19.1 6.1 Percent of inmate parents, 1997 State Federal Male Female Total Male 2.8% 12.5 12.7 22.4 14.3 9.1 19.9 6.3 146 mo. 150 mo. 19.3% 23.1 15.7 16.6 8.7 4.0 5.3 2.1 5.1 80 mo. 17.9% 22.9 15.9 17.2 9.1 4.2 5.6 2.2 5.0 82 mo. a 7.3% 20.3 19.9 23.2 10.7 6.3 9.4 2.8 94 mo. 37.5% 24.9 14.0 8.9 3.6 1.5 2.1 1.0 6.5 49 mo. Excludes sentences to life or death. Based on time served when interviewed plus time to be served until the expected date of release. c Excludes inmates who do not expect to be released. b 6 Incarcerated Parents and Their Children 2.3% 10.6 13.2 30.0 19.6 9.0 12.2 3.1 2.1% 9.5 13.0 30.6 19.7 9.2 12.7 3.3 121 mo. 124 mo. 8.5% 15.0 18.1 25.1 14.9 7.1 6.9 1.2 3.2 7.2% 14.5 18.1 25.6 15.4 7.4 7.3 1.3 3.3 103 mo. 105 mo. Female 5.1% 26.3 16.2 22.4 18.1 5.2 5.8 0.7 83 mo. 26.2% 22.9 17.2 17.8 8.3 3.2 2.2 0.5 1.8 66 mo. Mothers and fathers were serving time in State prison for different types of criminal offenses. Forty-five percent of fathers in State prison were violent offenders, compared to 26% of mothers. Fathers in State prison (14%) were more likely than mothers (6%) to be convicted of robbery. Mothers were more likely to be sentenced for drug offenses (35% compared to 23% of fathers) and fraud (11% and 2%). The current offenses of mothers and fathers in Federal prison were more similar than those of State inmates. Two-thirds of fathers and threequarters of mothers in Federal prison were convicted of drug offenses. The percentage of violent offenders among both fathers (12%) and mothers (6%) was much lower than in State prison, while 5% of fathers and 10% of mothers were property offenders. On average, parents expected to serve 80 months in State prison and 103 months in Federal prison Due to the large percentage convicted of violent offenses and drug trafficking, parents reported lengthy average sentences — over 12 years (146 months) in State prison and 10 years (121 months) in Federal prison (table 8). Over 40% of the parents in both State (48%) and Federal (44%) prison reported sentences of at least 10 years, including those sentenced to life in prison or death (6% of State and 3% of Federal). Given their higher percentage of violent offenders, fathers in State prison (150 months) reported sentences that averaged almost 5 years longer than those of mothers (94 months). Fortyeight percent of the mothers in State prison reported sentences of less than 5 years compared to 15% of fathers. Fathers in Federal facilities also reported a longer average sentence (124 months) than mothers (83 months). Mothers in Federal prison (48%) were also about twice as likely as fathers (25%) to report sentences of less than 5 years. On average parents in State prison expected to serve a total of 80 months prior to their release (55% of the mean sentence length). Fathers (82 months) expected to serve nearly 3 years more than mothers (49 months). In State prison 18% of parents said that they expected to serve at least 10 years before release. Two percent of parents never expected to be released; 5% did not know their release date. Despite reporting shorter sentences than parents in State prison, parents in Federal facilities expected to serve an average total of 103 months (85% of the mean sentence length). Fathers in Federal prison (105 months) expected to serve about 3 years longer than mothers (66 months). About 30% of parents in Federal prison expected to serve at least 10 years. Less than 5% of parents in Federal prison either never expected to be released (1%) or did not know their release date (3%). Over 75% of parents in State prison reported a prior conviction; 56% had been incarcerated At the time of their current arrest, 49% of the parents in State prison were on some type of conditional release from custody, such as probation or parole supervision in the community (table 9). Of the parents in State prison, 25% were on parole and 24% were serving a sentence to probation supervision at the time of arrest. Over three-quarters of parents in State prison reported a prior sentence to incarceration or probation, while the remainder said that they were first-time offenders. Almost half (46%) of parents in State prison were violent recidivists (repeat offenders with either a current or past violent offense). Most parents in State prison (60%) had served multiple prior sentences. Among State prison inmates the criminal histories of parents and nonparents did not differ appreciably. At arrest for their current offense, about 45% of the nonparents had a criminal justice status and 74% had a prior conviction. Criminal history Had a criminal justice status at time of arrest Percent of State prisoners, 1997 Parents Nonparents 49.1% 45.1% Had prior sentence to probation or incarceration 77.2% 74.0% Overall, fathers in State prison reported more serious criminal histories than mothers. Fathers (25%) were more likely than mothers (19%) to have been arrested while on parole release from a prior prison term. First-time offenders made up a smaller share of fathers in State prison (22% compared to 35% of mothers), and fathers (48%) were also twice as likely as mothers (23%) to be violent recidivists. In addition, 44% of fathers reported at least three prior convictions compared to 32% of mothers. Parents in Federal prison (27%) were almost half as likely as those in State prison (49%) to report a criminal justice status at time of arrest, and less likely to report a prior conviction (62% compared to 77%). As in State prison, fathers in Federal facilities (65%) were more likely to be recidivists than mothers (34%), particularly violent recidivists (23% of fathers, 6% of mothers). The percentage of fathers (32%) reporting at least three prior sentences was nearly triple that of mothers (11%). A majority of parents in State prison used drugs in the month before their offense More than 4 in 5 parents (85%) in State prison reported some type of past drug use, and a majority (58%) said that they were using drugs in the month before their current offense (table 10). Nonparents in State prison reported slightly lower levels of prior drug use. Percent of State prisoners, 1997 Prior drug use Parents Nonparents Ever 85.4% 80.3% In month before offense 58.1 54.9 At the time of the offense 33.6 31.5 Parents in State prison most commonly reported using marijuana (39%) and cocaine-based drugs (27%), including crack, in the month before their crimes, followed by heroin and other opiates (10%), stimulants (9%), depressants (5%), hallucinogens (3%), and inhalants (1%). Table 9. Criminal histories of State and Federal prisoners with minor children, by gender, 1997 Total Percent of inmate parents, 1997 State Federal Male Female Total Male . Status at time of current arrest None Status On parole On probation Escaped from custody 50.9% 49.1 24.8 23.7 0.6 51.5% 48.5 25.2 22.6 0.7 44.0% 56.0 18.6 37.0 0.5 73.0% 27.0 12.7 14.2 0.2 72.2% 27.8 13.4 14.3 0.1 83.9% 16.1 2.8 12.5 0.8 Criminal history None Priors Violent recidivistsa Drug recidivists only Other recidivistsb 22.8% 77.2 46.1 3.7 27.3 21.9% 78.1 48.0 3.6 26.6 34.7% 65.3 23.2 6.1 36.0 37.5% 62.5 22.2 11.4 28.8 35.4% 64.6 23.4 11.8 29.4 66.3% 33.7 5.6 6.6 21.3 Number of prior probation/ incarceration sentences 0 1 2 3-5 6-10 11 or more 22.8% 16.8 16.9 24.8 12.6 6.1 21.9% 16.7 17.0 25.2 13.0 6.3 34.7% 18.2 15.2 19.7 7.6 4.6 37.5% 18.1 13.6 20.9 7.6 2.2 35.4% 18.4 14.0 21.8 8.0 2.3 66.3% 14.7 8.3 8.2 2.1 0.3 a b Female Recidivists with at least one current or past violent offense. Includes recidivists with unknown offense types. Incarcerated Parents and Their Children 7 A third of the parents in State prison reported committing their current offense while under the influence of drugs. Parents were most likely to report the influence of cocaine-based drugs (16%) and marijuana (15%) while committing their crime. About equal percentages of parents in State prison reported the use of opiates (6%) and stimulants (5%) at the time of their offense, while 2% used depressants or hallucinogens. 1 in 3 mothers in State prison committed their crime to get drugs or money for drugs Mothers in State prison reported more serious drug use histories than fathers. Mothers in State prison (65%) were more likely than fathers (58%) to report drug use in the month before their offense, particularly the use of cocaine or crack (45% of mothers compared to 26% of fathers). Mothers (43%) were also more likely than fathers (33%) to report the influence of drugs in their current offense. Mothers were about twice as likely to have committed their crimes while under the influence of cocaine-based drugs (28%) or opiates (11%) as fathers (15% and 5%, respectively). Over a third of parents in State prison committed their offense while under the influence of alcohol In addition, 32% of mothers in State prison reported committing their crime to get drugs or money for drugs, compared to 19% of fathers. Prior intravenous drug use was also reported more commonly by mothers (29%) than fathers (19%). Parents in State prison were more likely to report being under the influence of alcohol (37%) than drugs (34%) while committing their current offense (table 11). According to the CAGE diagnostic instrument, 25% of the parents in State prison reported experiences that are consistent with a history of alcohol dependence (for details on the CAGE instrument, see Methodology). Overall, parents and nonparents in State prison did not differ in their reports of prior alcohol abuse. Percent of inmate parents in State prison who reported — Male Female Committing offense to get money for drugs 18.5% 32.2% Ever using intravenous drugs 19.0% 29.2% Prior alcohol abuse Percent of State prisoners, 1997 Parents Nonparents 25.1% 23.7% While reports of prior drug use were Alcohol dependent lower among parents in Federal prison, Under influence of 3 in 4 had used drugs and nearly half 37.8% alcohol at time of offense 36.7% used drugs in the month before their Parents in State prison also reported offense. Twenty-three percent of engaging in troubled behaviors associparents in Federal prison were under the influence of drugs when committing ated with prior alcohol abuse. About 48% of parents said that they had their offense. Aside from marijuana driven drunk in the past, 42% reported use (higher among fathers), mothers arguments with family members and and fathers in Federal prison reported friends while drinking, and 39% had similar drug use histories. alcohol-related physical fights. Table 10. Drug use of inmate parents in State or Federal prison, by gender, 1997 Ever using drugs Total Male Female Percent of inmate parents who reported — Using drugs in the month before the offense Total Male Female Using drugs at the time of the offense Total Male Female State prisoners, 1997 Any druga Marijuana/hashish Cocaine/crack Heroin/opiates Depressantsb Stimulantsc Hallucinogensd Inhalants 85.4% 85.4% 86.3% 58.1% 57.5% 65.3% 33.6% 32.9% 42.5% 79.0 53.3 25.3 23.9 28.6 28.5 14.2 79.8 52.2 24.8 23.7 28.4 28.6 14.2 69.4 67.2 31.3 25.9 30.7 26.6 13.1 39.3 27.1 9.7 5.1 9.2 3.4 0.7 40.3 25.7 9.2 4.9 9.1 3.5 0.7 27.5 44.6 16.0 7.1 10.5 2.1 1.3 15.2 16.0 5.6 1.8 4.6 1.6 -- 15.7 15.0 5.2 1.8 4.6 1.6 -- 8.8 28.3 10.7 2.3 5.3 1.1 -- 17.9% Federal prisoners, 1997 Any druga Marijuana/hashish Cocaine/crack Heroin/opiates Depressantsb Stimulantsc Hallucinogensd Inhalants 75.2% 75.8% 66.4% 46.0% 46.6% 37.4% 22.6% 23.0% 66.8 45.7 14.7 14.8 18.3 17.1 6.7 67.5 46.3 14.9 14.9 18.2 17.4 6.9 57.2 36.9 12.2 13.2 18.9 13.0 4.6 31.7 20.7 4.7 2.9 6.7 1.7 0.5 32.6 21.0 4.6 2.9 6.6 1.7 0.5 20.1 17.1 4.7 3.7 8.1 0.9 0.0 11.3 9.7 2.7 0.9 3.4 0.8 -- 11.7 10.0 2.6 1.0 3.3 0.8 -- Note: Detail adds to more than total because prisoners may have used more than one type of drug. -- Not reported. a Other unspecified drugs are included in the totals. 8 Incarcerated Parents and Their Children b Includes barbiturates, tranquilizers, and Quaalude. Includes amphetamine and methamphetamine. d Includes LSD and PCP. c 6.0 5.8 3.4 0.5 5.0 0.4 -- While similar percentages of fathers (25%) and mothers (23%) in State prison met the criteria for alcohol dependence, fathers were more likely to report other indications of alcohol abuse. A greater share of fathers (37%) than mothers (29%) reported committing their crime while drinking. Fathers in State prison were also more likely than mothers to report driving drunk (49% compared to 36%) and getting into physical fights while drinking (40% and 31%, respectively). Compared to State prisoners, parents in Federal prison were less likely to be alcohol dependent (16%) or to report committing their offense while drinking (21%). Lower percentages of the parents in Federal facilities also reported alcohol-related fighting (22%) and domestic disputes (30%). As in State prison, fathers in Federal prison were also more likely than mothers to report drunk driving (44% compared to 27%) and alcohol-related physical fights (23% and 14%, respectively). About 1 in 7 parents in State prison reported indications of a mental illness In responses to questions regarding mental health, parents in State prison (14%) were twice as likely as those in Federal prison (6%) to report indications of a mental illness (table 12). Inmates were considered mentally ill if they reported either of the following criteria: a current mental or emotional condition or an overnight stay in a mental hospital or treatment program. Reports of a mental illness were somewhat higher among State prisoners without children (19%). Mentally ill Percent of State prisoners, 1997 Parents Nonparents 14.1% 18.7% Among parents in State prison, 23% of mothers reported an indication of mental illness compared to 13% of fathers. Reports of mental illness indicators were more similar among mothers (10%) and fathers (6%) in Federal facilities. In the month prior to their arrest, 29% of parents in State and 27% of parents in Federal prison said that they were unemployed. Half of mothers in State Mothers in State prison (18%) were prison were unemployed in the month twice as likely as fathers (8%) to report before their arrest, compared to a quarter (27%) of fathers. The level of a period of homelessness in the year prior to admission (table 13). Overall, unemployment among mothers in parents in State prison (9%) were more Federal prison was lower (38%) but still likely than those in Federal prison (4%) exceeded that of fathers (26%). to report being homeless in the year before admission. In Federal facilities, Forty-six percent of the parents in State and 53% of parents in Federal similar percentages of mothers (5%) and fathers (4%) reported periods of prison reported a personal income of homelessness. at least $1,000 in the month before Nearly 20% of mothers in State prison had been homeless in the year prior to admission Table 11. Alcohol dependence and experiences of inmate parents in State or Federal prison, by gender, 1997 Total Percent of inmate parents, 1997 State Federal Male Female Total Male History of alcohol dependence* 25.1% 25.3% 23.5% 16.3% 16.6% 12.7% Under the influence of alcohol at time of current offense 36.7 37.4 28.8 20.7 21.0 16.6 Driven a motor vehicle while under the influence of alcohol? 47.6 48.5 35.7 42.4 43.6 27.1 Had arguments with your spouse, family, or friends? 41.7 41.8 39.5 29.8 30.1 25.3 Gotten into a physical fight? 39.2 39.8 31.3 22.4 23.0 14.3 Had as much as a fifth of liquor in 1 day (20 drinks, 3 six-packs of beer, or 3 bottles of wine)? 41.4 42.3 30.4 29.8 30.6 18.9 Female While drinking have you ever — *Measured by 3 or more positive CAGE responses. For a description of the CAGE diagnostic measure see Methodology. Table 12. Mental health status of inmate parents in State or Federal prison, by gender, 1997 Total Percent of inmate parents, 1997 State Federal Male Female Total Male 14.1% 13.4% Reported a mental or emotional condition 8.9 Admitted overnight to a mental hospital or treatment program 8.8 Mentally ill* Female 22.5% 5.9% 5.6% 10.3% 8.3 15.7 3.6 3.2 7.9 8.4 14.1 3.5 3.5 3.8 *Reported either a mental or emotional condition or an overnight stay in a mental hospital or treatment program. See BJS Special Report, Mental Health and Treatment of Inmates and Probationers, July 1999, NCJ 174463. Incarcerated Parents and Their Children 9 Wages or salary were the most Among State prisoners, mothers (44%) common source of income for parents were less likely than fathers (68%) to in both State (66%) and Federal (68%) receive wages in the month before prison, followed by income from illegal their arrest, but were more likely to activities (27% of State, 31% of receive transfer payments (42%, Federal). Eighteen percent of parents compared to 13% of fathers) and in State and 13% in Federal prison income from family or friends (26% and 18%). About 6% of mothers reported income from family and friends. Parents in State prison (15%) reported receiving child support or were more likely than those in Federal alimony payments, compared to less prison (9%) to report receiving transfer than 0.5% of fathers. Mothers (28%) and fathers (27%) in State prison were In the month before their current arrest, payments such as welfare, Social Security, or compensation payments. equally likely to report income from nonparents in State prison were less Less than 1% of all parents received illegal sources in their final month prior likely than parents to be employed (65%), or to report at least $1,000 of to arrest. child support or alimony payments in personal income (38%). Nonparents in the month before arrest. State prison also reported a higher incidence of homelessness in the past Table 13. Pre-arrest employment, income, and homelessness of inmate parents in State or Federal prison, by gender, 1997 year prior to admission (12%). their arrest. Parents in Federal prison (15%) were nearly twice as likely as those in State prison (8%) to report the highest incomes (at least $5,000) in the month before arrest. Mothers in both State (70%) and Federal (66%) prison were more likely than fathers (53% of State, 45% of Federal) to report incomes below $1,000 in the month before arrest. Percent of State prisoners, 1997 Parents Nonparents Employed during month before current arrest 70.9% 64.8% Income of at least $1,000 in month before arrest 46.0% 38.2% Homeless in the past year 9.2% 12.3% Total Percent of inmate parents, 1997 State Federal Male Female Total Male Female 29.1% 70.9 27.4% 72.6 50.1% 49.9 26.5% 73.5 25.6% 74.4 38.2% 61.8 59.0 9.2 2.7 60.5 9.2 2.8 39.2 8.9 1.8 62.7 8.5 2.2 63.7 8.4 2.2 49.4 10.2 2.1 Personal income in the month before current arrest Less than $200 $200-599 $600-999 $1,000-1,999 $2,000-4,999 $5,000 or more 16.5% 20.5 16.9 24.4 13.4 8.2 16.0% 19.9 16.7 25.1 13.9 8.4 22.9% 28.4 18.7 16.7 7.7 5.6 16.5% 14.4 15.8 23.8 14.4 15.1 16.2% 13.8 15.4 24.1 14.8 15.7 20.6% 23.6 21.6 19.4 8.2 6.6 Source of income in month before current arresta Wages or salary Transfer paymentsb Family/friends Child support/alimony payments Illegal sources Otherc 66.4% 15.4 18.4 0.6 27.2 3.4 68.3% 13.3 17.8 0.1 27.1 3.4 43.6% 41.8 26.1 6.5 28.1 2.8 67.6% 8.8 13.3 0.6 30.6 6.0 68.4% 7.1 12.7 0.2 31.1 6.1 57.1% 33.3 22.2 6.3 23.7 4.1 Homeless in the past year, living on the street, or in a shelter? 9.2% 8.5% 18.4% 3.8% 3.7% 5.0% Employment during month before current arrest Unemployed Employed Full-time Part-time Occasional a Detail may add to more than 100% because prisoners may have had multiple sources of income. Includes welfare, Social Security, Supplemental Social Security income, and compensation payments such as unemployment insurance, workman's b 10 Incarcerated Parents and Their Children compensation and Veteran's Compensation. c Includes pensions, educational assistance, investments, and other unspecified types of income. Methodology Data in this report are based on personal interviews conducted through the 1997 Surveys of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities. Detailed descriptions of the methodology and sample design of the surveys can be found in the BJS Special Report, Substance Abuse and Treatment, State and Federal Prisoners, 1997 (NCJ 172871). Accuracy of the estimates The accuracy of the estimates in this report depends on two types of error: sampling and nonsampling. Sampling error is the variation that may occur by chance because a sample rather a complete enumeration of the population was conducted. Nonsampling error can be attributed to many sources, such as nonresponses, differences in the interpretation of questions among inmates, recall difficulties, and processing errors. For example, inmates may deny or dispute parenthood and fail to report children. The sampling error, as measured by an estimated standard error, varies by the size of the estimate and the size of the base population. Appendix tables 1 and 2 contain estimates of the standard errors for selected characteristics of inmate parents that were calculated for each survey. (For other inmate characteristics, please use the generalized standard error estimates presented in the appendix tables of Substance Abuse and Treatment, State and Federal Prisoners, 1997.) The standard errors included in the appendix tables below may be used to construct confidence intervals around percentages. For example, the 95% confidence interval around the percentage of parents in State prison who reported a prior conviction is approximately 77.2% plus or minus 1.96 times 0.62% (or 76.0% to 78.4%). These standard errors may also be used to test the statistical significance of the difference between two sample statistics by pooling the standard errors of the two sample estimates. For Appendix table 1. Standard errors of selected characteristics of State prisoners with minor children, 1997 Selected characteristic Percent of State inmate parents, 1997 Total Male Female example, the standard error of the difference between mothers and fathers in State prison who were violent offenders would be 1.46% (or the square root of the sum of the squared standard errors for each group). The 95% confidence interval around the difference would be 1.96 times 1.46 (or 2.86%). Since the difference of 19.4% (45.4% minus 26.0%) is greater than 2.86%, the difference would be considered statistically significant. CAGE diagnostic instrument for alcohol dependence The CAGE questionnaire is a diagnostic instrument for detecting a person’s history of alcohol abuse or dependence. In a clinical test, three or more positive responses to the four CAGE questions carried a .99 predictive value for alcohol abuse or dependence. For further information on the predictive values of the CAGE instrument, see the article “Screening for Alcohol Abuse Using the CAGE Questionnaire” by B. Bush and others, The American Journal of Medicine, Vol. 82, February 1987, pp.231-35. Appendix table 2. Standard errors of selected characteristics of Federal prisoners with minor children, 1997 Selected characteristic Percent of Federal inmate parents, 1997 Total Male Female Have minor children* 0.54% 0.58% 1.07% Have minor children* 1.01% 1.08% 2.00% Lived with children prior to admission 0.73% 0.77% 1.34% Lived with children prior to admission 1.31% 1.40% 1.94% Child's current caregiver Child's other parent Child's grandparent Foster home/agency 0.53% 0.55 0.23 0.48% 0.54 0.21 1.26% 1.40 0.83 Child's current caregiver Child's other parent Child's grandparent Foster home/agency 0.87% 0.87 0.30 0.78% 0.84 0.30 2.45% 2.64 0.93 Monthly contact with children Any Phone Mail Visits 0.71% 0.73 0.73 0.60 0.76% 0.77 0.78 0.64 1.15% 1.39 1.33 1.19 Monthly contact with children Any Phone Mail Visits 1.00% 1.18 1.26 1.11 1.09% 1.27 1.35 1.18 1.47% 2.08 2.35 2.10 Current offense Violent Property Drug Public-order 0.73% 0.61 0.63 0.45 0.78% 0.64 0.66 0.48 1.23% 1.26 1.34 0.85 Current offense Violent Property Drug Public-order 0.62% 0.43 1.40 0.68 0.65% 0.43 1.46 0.71 1.81% 2.23 5.02 1.98 Criminal history Any priors 0.62% 0.65% 1.34% Criminal history Any priors 1.28% 1.35% 2.51% Prior substance abuse Used drugs in month before offense Alcohol dependent 0.72% 0.64 0.77% 0.68 1.33% 1.19 Prior substance abuse Used drugs in month before offense Alcohol dependent 1.32% 0.98 1.41% 1.05 2.58% 1.77 *Based on all State prisoners. *Based on all Federal prisoners. Incarcerated Parents and Their Children 11 The Bureau of Justice Statistics is the statistical agency of the U.S. Department of Justice. Jan M. Chaiken, Ph.D., is director. This report and others from the Bureau of Justice Statistics are available free of charge through the Internet & BJS Special Reports address a specific topic in depth from one or more datasets that cover many topics. http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/ Christopher J. Mumola wrote this report under the supervision of Allen J. Beck. Laura M. Maruschak and Todd D. Minton provided statistical assistance. Tom Hester and Ellen Goldberg edited the report. Jayne Robinson prepared the report for publication. The data from the 1997 Surveys of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities are available from the National Archive of Criminal Justice Data, maintained by the Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research at the University of Michigan, 1-800999-0960. The archive may also be accessed through the BJS Internet site. August 2000, NCJ 182335 12 Incarcerated Parents and Their Children