SECTION I: p. 1
1

• the search for an electric wavefonn that could be used in a weapon to capture
suspects or public defense began in 1966. The discovery of the pulsed wave which became the basis
for the weapon called "TABER" did not occur until 1969 and was preceded and followed by
extensive testing on both men and animals to establish that it is nonlethal and non-injurious as
well as powerfully subduing and rlipidly incapacitating.

..

The years between 1970 when the first pre-production prototypes were made and 1975 when Taser
was first marketed were filled with carefully planned tests and many demonstrations to
government agencies, industry and private parties. From the beginning, it was realized that a
new type of weapon would be subject to coverage by the news media and especially vulnerable to
law suits. Taser was not a toy and we had to exercise every possible precaution and try to consider
the many possible situations and circumstances of use.
This report is motivated by the continuing criticisms of the Taser leveled by people in several
groups - sometimes well.meaning but ignorant, sometimes coming from certain lobbies with
vested interests that have attempted to have the Taser banned since 1975. It is a summary, not a
detailed report, which wi11 focus upon the charges frequently heard, to wit: 1) it can be lethal, 2) it
causes bums, 3) it was not adequately tested to prove nonlethality and 4) it is a torture device.
The enclosures have been selected from our files to show that in fact tests were run and it is safe
and effective. Actually, the real proof lies in the unbelievable results obtained by thousands of uses
by police departments over the past 15 years. This is further augmented by it's equally amazing
performance in animal control.

~i concentrated primarily upon literature surveys to find out what was known
about the effects upon humans of electric shocks. UCLA and UCI (Irvine) were the main sources.
The enclosure "Medical Bibliography and Summary", prepared in 1970 covers the more important
findings. Jack Cover, the inventor and Taser developer, made the searches, studied the reports
and reviewed them with one or more of his MD associates. In this early time period, Dr's John
Kalbfleisch and Toby Freedman were his main consultants.
Medical work included animal tests on fibrillation of the heart which is perhaps the most critical
danger to humans receiving even 'mild' electric shocks. As it turned out, one of the most important
studies was performed by the Underwriter Labs on electric fences (under the auspices of the U.S.
Government) in the time period of 1936 - 39. U.L. not only reviewed medical work but also ran tests
and derived a safety standard for electrified fences sti11 used today.
In this work I thought I perceived a possibility and I focused on it as I went through other studies
such as John Hopkins and Dalziel of Berkely. Tests run by the researchers followed a strict format
of shock delivery to the heart of various animals, i.e. a single shock of measured time duration
and current magnitude was delivered and if the heart did not fibri11ate, a second shock of greater
magnitude followed keeping the time interval the same. This program of step-up continued until
the animals heart fibri11ated. Then another animal was tested changing the time interval and
repeating the current incremental change.
The important conclusion reached and stated by the U.L. and others (Dalziel coined it an
electrocution value) was that there was a relationship between shock strength and time duration
which was expressed as an equation of current-time product. If the shock was kept below this value
(UL's value was 4m.a. - secs; see the Encl. ·Pulsed Electrical Shock Criteria") there was no
danger of causing fibrillation. All of our electrified fences abide by this standard!

SECTION I: p. 2
2
Other references of interest and value shown were shock accident history which seemed to indicate
that humans could survive enormous jolts if they were of very short duration. This was partly born
out by tests on rats and other animals which reached values of 200KV and 400 amps; dogs survived
1000 joule shocks at 4 microseconds.
Also, ECT • electroconvulsivetherapy • had been used on humans for years and provided more
information concerning shock values when the head was involved. Another enclosu.re cites some
of the experts I consulted with in this field.
It was now 1969 and I was about to find the 'breakthrough'. Using a capacitor of about 1/4uFarad

and charged to 100 volts, I passed the shock through my lower body (avoiding the heart area). The
resulting JOLT was so different from previous shocks that I knew I was on the right track. Aside
from a strong muscular contraction, the shock did something else that is best described by saying
that I was conscious of an attitude change. It was not only subduing, it affected my mood so
strongly that I turned off my power supply and sat and thought about what I was doing.
After a short time it came to me • this was it! This was exactly the effect I had been looking for and I
then devised a program of progressively testing the capacitor discharge shocks at various levels on
different parts of my body.
The point here is that I was now deliberately testing capacitor discharges upon myself and began to
extrapolate the I vs delta time backwards on the enclosed graph. I found that as the discharge
energy increased so did the physiological effect (see enclosed test results). Note that I avoided
transthoracic shocks but I had now graduated to multiple shocks. I could adjust my test equipment
to vary the prf. pulse repetition frequency - as well as voltage and the number of coulombs. I very
quickly determined that pulses containing as little as 0.1 joule repeated only 3 times per second
were very disconcerting!
Also, while it was comforting to know that my power supply was like a defibrillator, I knew that I
still had to cross the Rubicon and prove that this waveform, especially the repeated pulses, would
not cause fibrillation. So, as 1970 rolled around, the time had come to run tests on hearts - first
animal and then human.
Animals were fairly easy to obtain and the results of the July 11, 1970 test on a pig are enclosed.
The results were 100% successful. Not only was the pig frozen at appropriate levels, but the full
output with multiple pulses passed right through the heart were harmless. Dr. Toby Freedman and
the other MD present were absolutely amazed at the effectiveness· we were all amazed when, tests
complete, the pig was released and raced off to join the others for lunch!
Continued Animal and Volunteer Tests· tests on pigs, cattle and a dog were stepped up in 1971.
Tests run at Ontario, CA, on cattle ranging from 250 to 2000 pounds in which the current input
points were varied to include the heart, spine and brain were all successful causing no injuries,
but now I began to realize that animals required substantially more energy per pulse than did
humans. (later tests on Rhesus monkeys at an Army Research facility in Aberdeen, MD, really
underscored this· the lIb animals were hardly bothered by the full output of the Taser Std. prototype
that could easily down the most powerful man!>.
In Feb. 1971 I signed contracts with Advanced Chemical Technology Inc. who agreed to pay the
costs involved in getting the Taser into production, including "all up· instrumented tests of paid
volunteers. These tests would be the first in which the Taser's pulsed waveform would be passed
through the chest of human beings. At first, it appeared that we would not be able to do what was
needed • run the tests in a hospital under the supervision of MD's and using medical
instrumentation to monitor the heart. Of course it was also necessary to have emergency
equipment and procedures ready to go if necessary.

SECTION I: p.3
3
The problem was that neither the hospitals or the MO's we talked to wanted to be part of this - they
all feared law suits. That's when Or. Frank Summers came on the scene. Through a friend he had
heart about the Taser. He is an anesthesiologist with a BSEE and had been quite interested in work
done on electrical anesthesia. Frank was all for the Taser from the start and quickly arranged for
the tests to be run at St. Joe's.
AI Fraser was the first to be tested - end ofJune 1971; Richard Roper on Sept. 30, 71; John B. Cover
(with production units) on Sept. 28, 1974. All of these were uniquely successful as well as being
very impressive. There have also been a number of other volunteer tests done 'in person' before
various committees and medical authorities across the country. And of course, we have
demonstrated the Taser on TV shows such as "That's Incredible" (1981).
Again, the extensive field use by police provides the best records of all. However, here again we
have had the problem of persons, sometimes MO's, making statements to the media that are totally
wrong because they know nothing about the Taser and all of it's background and testing. The
enclosures cover some of the incidents such as the one involving the Sutter Memorial Hospital in
Sacramento, CA, which had very positive results.
It was certainly inevitable that there would be deaths of some suspects arrested and upon whom the

Taser (and usually other forces) were used. In many cases the suspects were heavily drugged and
even had illnesses - serious heart problems - that could have caused their death without any
interaction with police. The problem that arose was that it was often impossible for medical
personnel present at the time of death· or the Coroners Staff during autopsy - to determine the true
cause of death. But, our legal system requires them to list the Taser as a possible contributing cause
in the absence of knowledge of the cause.
The enclosure cites two cases (Oct. 88) in which Taser had been a suspect but was cleared (also
shows confusion with the Stun Guns which do not project, have closely spaced probes which do cause
burns and which are primarily pain-compliance devices, i.e., they do not have the effectiveness of
the Taser). Another more recent (3/91) Coroners' Finding published in the Forensic Science
Journal (also enclosed) basically absolves Taser from contributing to any of the 15 deaths
occurring during the past 10 - 11 years the LAPO has used them.
- several enclosures report upon special animal tests involving
different species. As stated earlier, animals require more 'power' than humans. The Co. has built
several prototype rifles capable of greater range than the basic Taser and having variable power
outputs up to 30 times the basic Taser output. Personnel from the U.S. Wildlife Service and the
California Fish and Game have conducted tests and written articles citing it's performance.
Unfortunately, the company does not have funds to put these into production at the moment.
SWllIllll.DC - we believe that the Taser is nonlethal and basically also non-injurious.The basic
understanding of effects of electrical shocks in heart fibrillation and the extensive tests performed
to arrive at the safe-value for electric fences was the basis for considering the Taser waveform
safe. The extrapolation of safe current versus time duration to shorter - much shorter time
durations· had been proposed and more or less accepted as valid before Taser research began.
Our testing on animals, especially pigs, included shocks directly through the heart region - some
of which were 10 times greater then the Taser output. There were no deaths and no injuries. The
same is true of our tests run on volunteers who were medically supervised and instrumented. In
addition the company has Tasered some 20 other volunteers during demonstrations.

SECTION I: p. 4
1

Bw:1umw.wl- during the development of the TaBer nonlethal weapon (1966 ·74), it was discovered
that very short duration (microsecond), high energy, predominantly d.c. pulses were nonlethal
and non-injurious, but had a profound physiological and psychological effect upon both men and
animals. When the pulses were rapidly repeated - at 3 or more pulses per second· complete
incapacitation resulted within a few seconds.
••

In the 1971 • 74 period, tests on volunteers were done under the supervision of Dr. Frank Summers
with two cardiologists, a physiologist, EKG and other instrumentation plus two 16mm movie
cameras, at St. Joseph's Hospital in Orange, CA. In addition to the almost instantaneous, complete
incapacitation - resulting collapse to the floor - it was observed that the volunteers' facial
. . This was an
contortions indicated extreme pain, yet the
unexpected finding!
During the ensuing years there have been thousands of uses, mostly by police on suspects, but also
other volunteers and animal tests. The following additional effects of the Taser have been
observed.
A)
- people apparently mentally deranged or drugged engaging in
violent actions exhibit a complete ·personality" change after being Tasered and incapacitated for
3 - 5 seconds. The mood 'swing' from the unreasonable and uncontrollable is to a totally different
one displaying reasonableness and willingness to cooperate.
B)
- many tests have been performed upon different animals
(goats, sheep, deer, pigs, cattle, lions, hippos, black bear and one grizzly bear plus 8 - 9
bisonlbuffalo, to name a few!) often in conjunction with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
California Fish and Game, the Smithsonian National Zoological Farm (lions), and
veterinarians, farmers and ranchers. These tests showed that the Taser waveform (TWF) had a
calming effect even upon bison and cattle, to the extent that many did not want to get up off the
ground after it was over!
Note, however, that animals require greater energy in the TWF pulses to achieve the same results
- presumably due to the greater sophistication and sensitivity of the human central nervous
system. This was first noted during tests on pigs and later (1973) strongly confirmed with tests
upon 1 Ib Rhesus monkeys at Aberdeen, MD. Wildlife Biologists and Vets are very enthusiastic
about the ability of the TWF to capture and control animals, both wild and domestic, and unlike
other techniques, such as nets, lasso's or drug darts, calm them at the same time.
C)
. police in the Los Angeles area found that suspects drugged with
PCP ·came off their high" almost immediately after being Tasered. Normally they require
confinement for 24 - 48 hours alternately exhibiting violent and cataleptic behavior.
~

•

• the most obvious manifestation of the physiological effect of the Taser TWF on the
human body is the cyclical, alternating contractions and relaxations, or clonic, motion of the
skeletal muscles in response to the excitation of the neuromuscular system involved in the current
flow path. Total incapacitation occurS almost immediately including physical collapse, blackout
and unconsciousness. This sequence of reactions to the impact of the TWF energy pulses typically
takes only 1 - 3 seconds.
The Taser waveforms are shown in the attached scope photos and are seen to have a duration of a
"
..
.
of the
few microseconds (it has been
Since the energy is

SECTION I: p. 5
•

2
proportional to the square of the voltage level, most of the energy is contained in the first portions of
the pulse wave).
In Taser tests upon humans and animals, the energy per pulse has been varied from .0001 to 20
joules. The standard production model Taser develops about .3 joules per pulse with a 12 • 14pps
repetition rate giving about 3 - 4 watts average power output. The Police Special developed 0.7 joules
per pulse and 10 watts average power.
.• •

For those who have worked with radar or similar fields, it is interesting to note that the peak power
(energy divided by the time duration) per pulse of the standard production Taser is 10 Kilowatts!
The actual voltage output is of course dependent upon the impedance of the external 'pathway·
including clothing, skinlhide, nesh and air gaps in the two wire mode. In the one·wire mode the
'ground' return path usually represents the biggest resistance. The voltage ranges from a few
hundred to 60KV.
The 60 KV was a requirement in order that the electrical pulses would be able to penetrate winter
clothing rather than depending upon the kinetic energy of the dart-contactors to penetrate clothing
and nesh. The electric current peaks produced by this voltage range from a few amperes to 8 • 10
amps depending upon the impedance. These values at first appear frighteningly large, but please
note that the National Bureau of Standards long ago measured currents arising from shocks from
auto ignitions systems as high as 60 • 80 amperes!
Organic trauma - tissue damage or skin bums. have never been found in either the controlled
volunteer tests or in the thousands offield uses of the Taser. There are two reasons for this - first,
the Taser projection contacting system spreads the darts about 1 foot apart at impact on the body;
secondly, the relatively good conductivity of the nerves and capillaries, plus the spread, results in
the formation of parallel electrical paths through the body, each one carrying only a few milliamps
of current.
It is these almost infinite number of current branches through the corporeal volume of the body that
accounts for the total domination of the central nervous system stimulating not only the
neuromuscular but virtually all nerves in it's pathway. The electrical energy contained in the
TWF pulse is sufficient to produce the bioelectric changes in membranes, tissues and cells.
Electrochemistry plays a role in biochemical reactions and it is hypothesized that the pulsed
energy can cause bioelectric changes ranging from polarization of atoms or molecules to the
reversal or dissipation of ions and their associate bonds.

Such changes appear to be transient in most cases, but may be 'permanent' if an abnormal
bioelectric condition existed, such as PCP molecules binding with protein molecules in nerve cell
membranes in the brain. In this case, the 'permanent' change is the breaking of the PCP bonds
releasing the drug and restoring normal functioning. We will refer to this hypothetical action as
BioElectric Shock Transient, or BST.
Considering the suggested effects of BST - changes in ionization, attraction and bonding values·
it appears possible that 'foreign' substances such as poisons, drugs and alcohols, that depend upon
electrical 'affinities', for their action upon organic molecules, may in fact be neutralized or
dispersed by the TWF action.
The apparent blocking of conscious recognition of pain (see background) by the Taser observed
during Hospital tests on volunteers, is a direct parallel to the action of an anesthesia (some of
which block neural conduction in peripheral nerves; others affect the central nervous system
preventing subjective interpretation of afferent impulses from reaching the 'conscious' brain).
BST appears to have the latter effect since the Tasered subjects are not aware of pain caused by the
excitation of sensory nerves.

, .. "

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SECTION I: p.6

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. 40KV Pulse (5usec/cm) thru 10Kohm
res ~stor & sman a ir gap (t1~,..."r:).;--_ _. J -

18KY Pulse(thr4 'lOKohms & 1"
-.-:.._~

_=:_,.=_.:_
•. _

Scope Photos of the Taser Output Waveforms under
conditions cited(1971-72 time period). Work done
in Santa Ana, CA. Lab.

I~

Measurement of body & skin re~
sistance to spark penetration ~ .
14,400 ohrr,s(JOh.'Y-4 usecs),
.'
In th~s cas~. t-he path wtls thru
J. Cover's leg (thigh to ankle) via
spark penetration of clothes & skir
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60KV Pulse, 7 microsecs duratn.(2usec
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Note damped (overdamped), non-cyclic
wavt!form.
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SECTION I: p. 7
1

In the Introduction, Pg. I, we stated that Taser has been criticized on occasion but also serious,
unwarranted charges have been made by seemingly authoritative persons. Specifically, it has
been stated 1) it can be lethal, 2) it has not been adequately tested to establish in fact that it is
nonlethal, 3) it causes skin burns, 4) Taser tortures it's victims suspects.
..
- the primary basis for it's nonlethality come from A) extensive medical testing done
on electrified cattle fences B) extensive testing performed by the Taser Company on both animals
and humans, and C) it's extensive use in the field by police and others during the past 17 years.
Let's examine these statements in detail.

=

-

'.

-

A) Independent background tests on dangerous electrical shocks • primarily dealt with
fibrillation of the heart because this is by far the "Achilles Heel" for mammals! Refer to the
enclosure "Pulsed Electrical Shock Criteria". Numerous studies and tests on animal's hearts
were conducted over many years (at least 1920 on) by many institutions and in many different
countries. Two reports are listed under 'Notes' on the graph. The Underwriter Labs. Research
Bulletin No. 14 is one of the best organized and most comprehensive. The UL survey was
sponsored by the U.S. Government because electric fences had sprung up all over the country
(since 1920) and there were reported deaths from these uncontrolled devices.

!

Ii

At the end of their investigation, UL specified as "SAFE" pulsed shocks whose IxT (current times
the time duration of the shock) was equal to or less than 4 m.a. - seconds (m.a. = milliamps or
1/1000 ampere). This criteria was supported by numerous animal tests such as the ones run by John
Hopkins and needless to say the values selected as 'safe' were very conservative!! The proof rests
in the fact that this criteria was adopted in the U.S. by 1940 and our cattle fences (there are millions
all over the country) are built to this Spec.
Now, how does this relate to Taser's nonlethality? Taser's pulse generating circuits were
designed to produce outputs that fall well below the Electrified Fence Criteria, as shown by the point
marked on the graph. (The original test work on animals was done varying both the shock time
duration and it's current amplitude. In early work, time deltas ranged from about .001 to 3 sees). If
you follow the criteria formula - a safe pulse has an IxT product equal to or less than .004 ampereseconds. That means that if the time duration is .01 sec the current pulse can equal 0.4 amps; and
if the time delta is 111000 ofa second, the current - safe peak current - is 4 amperes.
Referring to the Criteria Chart again, the Taser nominal peak current output is about 2.5-3 amps
(this is a value determined by the resistance of the human body. internal resistance). HQ:IE that
the Taser output is THREE ORDERS OF MAGNITUDE BELOW THE MAX SAFE LEVEL (of the
more conservative 1969 formula, Curve (2). In other words, the peak current could be raised to 3000
amps in a 3 microsecond pulse and it would not cause fibrillation!!
In some of the shock accident reports and some of the animal tests, peak currents have exceeded
1000 amps without killing the recipients. The Taser output was selected to be extremely
conservative and we submit that it has proven itself Safe and Nonlethal over the years it has been
in use in this country.
B) The Taser Company tests were conducted initially over the time period 1966-1974 and have been
delineated earlier in this report. To summarize, we performed many tests to test Taser's safety reheart fibrillation. Most of the early tests were performed on pigs and calves (stsying in the human
weight range) • currents were passed through the heart region up to 10 times the recognized 'safe'
level without inducing fibrillation or causing any injuries.

II
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SECTION I: p. 8
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