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PARKER CENTER
LOS ANGELES, CA 90012

VOLUME 36
NUMBER 2
JFSCAS 36l2JI297 -624(1991)

MARCH 1991
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Ronald N. Kornblum,' M.D. and Sara K. Reddy,' M.D.

Effects of the Taser in Fatalities Involving Police
Confrontation

REFERENCE: Kornblum. R. N. and Reddy. S. K.. "Effects of the Taser in Fatalities
InvolvinR Police Confrontation." Ioumal of Forensic Sciences. JFSCA. Vol. 36. No.2. March
1991. pp. 434-+18.
ABSTRACT: Sixteen deaths associated with the use of the Taser were examined. All involved
young males who had a history of abuse of controlled substances: all but three were under
the influence of cocaine. phencyclidine Iphenylcyclohexylpiperidine (PCP) I. or amphetamine.
All were behaving in a bizarre or unusual fashion which necessitated calling the police. The
cause of death was an overdose of drugs in eleven. gunshot wounds in three. heart disease
and Taser shock in one. and an undetermined cause in one. All were considered to be under
the intluence of PCP by the police at the lime of the incident. All were unarmed. which was
the reason a Taser was used instead of a more lethal weapon. The conclusion reached after
evaluation of these cases is that the Taser in and of itself does not cause death. although it
may have contributed to death in one case.
KEYWORDS: cnminalistics, Tuser. death. controlled substances

In the search for less lethal means of subduing violent and uncooperative suspects.
police departments have experimented with a variety of weapons. Among these is the
Taser gun. The Taser (Tom A. Swift Electric Rifle) is a small. hand-held electrical device
about the size of an ordinary flashlight which fires two barbs into the subject and delivers
an electrical charge. The charge is designed to shock and immobilize the subject
but not to inflict serious injury or cause death. It was originally designed for use by airline
personnel to thwart hijackings but has passed into use by law enforcement agencies as
an alternative to the upper-body restraint holds more commonly known as choke holds.
The Los Angeles Police Commission. which banned the use of choke holds. approved
the use of the Taser in May 1982. Since then it has been used several thousand times by
the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) in attempts to control violent suspects, It
has also been used by the Los Angeles Sheriffs Office and other police agencies in the
county. During that time there have been 16 deaths associated with the usc of the Taser
in Los Angeles County. This report is an analysis of these deaths.
Less Lelhal Weapons
The purpose of a less lethal weapon is to subdue a violent. hostile. or uncooperative
suspect and effect his or her arrest without causing harm to the suspect. the arresting
Received for publication 3 June 1989; revised manuscript received 13 March 1990; accepted for
publication 10 April t990.
'Chief medical examiner-coroner and deputy medical examiner. respectively. Department of the
Chief Medical Examiner-Coroner. Los Angeles. CA.

434

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KORNBLUM AND REDDY' TASER FATALITIES

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officers. or innocent bystanders. The weapon should be designed [0 overcome resistance
quickly and make the use of more lethal weapons. such as the baton or gun. unnecessary.
To be effective, the weapon must he capable of use at short range. it must be immediatelv. available to the officer. and it must be designed for use with one hand. The
weapon must produce an instantaneous effect and must temporarily disable the suspect
so that an arrest cun be made without injury. In addition. the weapon must be effective
against individuals who are under the influence of alcohol or drugs. particularly cocaine
and phencyclidine [phenylcvclohexytpipertdine (PCPll. It must also he effective against
individuals who are mentally disturbed.
Scverul less-than-Iethal weapons have been tried or are in usc by various law enforcement agencies. Some of the more popular include the following:

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most commonly used preparations arc chloroacetophenone , erhylbromoacetatc. bromoacetone. bromornethylethylketone. and orthochlorobenzyiidene rnalononitril. These substances are effective Iacrimators and Cause extreme irritation and
edema of the mucous membranes of the nose and eyes. They have been used extensively
lor riot control and to induce a barricaded suspect to come out into the open. The greatest
disadvantage of tear gas is that it loses its effectiveness in the wind and spreads over a
wide area. therefore causing discomfort to innocent bystanders.
Capture .\jlll-A device designed to be thrown over an individual and entrap him or
~ tightening the draw ropes. In order for this device to be useful. the time must be
.\ • ;:~Ie to assemble the necessary officers and prepare the net. This extensive time and
1aration severely limits its usefulness.
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Immobilizer-s- This device consists of two long poles connected hy a chain. It is used
in a fashion similar to that for the capture net hut also has the same disadvantages. in
that time is necessary to assemble the equipment and the officers.

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Stun Gun-A weapon described as an electrical self-defense device which sends out
50000 V to the body when pressed against the skin. It is powered by a l)- V buttery and
sends out only ~O mAo The victim is stunned. loses control of all voluntary muscles.
collapses. and remains dazed and rubbery-legged for a few minutes. The overall effect
is similar to that of the Taser. The effect is similar because the stun gun uses the same
electrical source. The difference is that the stun gun has to be placed next to (he suspect's
skin for it to work, while the Taser can be fired like a gun.

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Cannon-e- This .....cupcn consists of a high-pressure water nozzle on a mobile
pumper. It is an effective weapon. hut expensive and not very mobile. lt is used most
frequently for riot control.

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cause anyone to slip and fall and not be able to walk. fun. or maintain his balance.
Unfortunately. this material can cause a person to fall. hit his head. and cause a fracture
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Pepper Fog-Pepper fog consists of a mixture of cyclohexanol and sunthene mixed
with either chloroacctophennne or with orthochlorbenzut rnalononitrile. It is similar to
tear gas in that it affects the mucous membranes and it has (he same limitations. In
addition. it requires bulky equipment.

MlIn'-M:..lce is a chemical disabling agent which when sprayed on the face and eyes
rA-cs rearing, numbness. and temporary blindness. It is composed of a solution of
~, ·llcetophcnonc mixed with 2.1.2-trichloro-I.:!.2-triOuoroethane. and Ltf-trlchloro,.. lIi.IOC. It is effective only at very short range and suffers from the same disadvantages
as tear gas.

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436

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JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES

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Wooden Plug Gun-A device or weapon that fires wooden plugs instead of bullets.
The missile is designed to hun the subject so that he or she can be brought under control
by the police. It is not designed to penetrate the skin or to cause serious injury. The

I

disadvantage is that a suspect under the influence of PCP or other drugs may not feel
the wooden plugs because of sensory blockade. thus negating the usefulness of the
weapon.

Rubber Plug Gun-This device is essentially the same as the wooden plug gun. except
that the missiles are rubber instead of wood. Therefore. it suffers from the same disadvantages as the wooden plug gun.

Ricochet Curtridge-A shotgun shell loaded with putty instead of shot. It is designed
to strike the pavement and spatter. It is a useful weapon in crowd control but has little
effect on an individual under the influence of drugs.
Other devices that have been tried include the riot baton. tranquilizing darts. and fluid
projectiles. As yet. no single weapon has been developed which is simple. effective. and
reliable and which has 2ained the confidence of the user.

-

The Taser
The Tuser is a hand-held electrical control device. or electronic immobilization gun.
which fires darts that deliver an electrical charge to the target. It is an effective. closerange weapon that does not depend on damage or destruction of tissue or organs to be
effective. It is designed to shock and immobilize an uncontrollable sub jeer without causing
injury or permanent harm. Because the device fires darts. it is classified as a firearm by
the federal government and has been designated a weapon by the California courts [JI.
Essentially. the Taser consists of an electrical source which is powered by batteries
and two cartridges (Figs. 1 and 2). Each cartridge contains two darts or barbs which are
attached to 18 ft (5.5 m) of wire. The device weighs 1'/, Ib (680 g) and has a length of
9 in. (23 em) and a maximum range of 18 ft (5.5 m),
The weapon is fired by pressing a thumb-operated release bar or trigger which explodes
a small gunpowder charge. ejecting the two barbs contained in one of the cartridges.
The barbs have an initial muzzle velocity of only 55 m/s. If both barbs strike the target.
an electrical circuit is completed and current is transmitted from the batteries to the
target. As long as the trigger is depressed. the current will continue to flow until the
batteries run down or the barbs become dislodged from the target.
The barbs penetrate only 1/.. in. (6.4 rnm), but an electrical arc or spark of 11/ :: in. (38
mm) is produced at the end of the barb. Therefore. the barb does not have to be embedded
in the skin for the weapon to be effective; the current will easily pass through clothing
(Figs. 3 and 4). As long as both barbs are embedded in the skin or clothing. the weapon
should be effective.
The trigger should be depressed only long enough to subdue the suspect totally; then
the current should be stopped in order to allow him or her to recover. The manufacturer
recommends that the current be applied for only 2 to 3 s. Once the suspect is immobilized.
the officers should move in quickly and apply restraints before the suspect recovers from
the effects of the electricity.
fn keeping with Los Angeles Police Department's policy of using the minimum amount
of force necessary to control a violent suspect. the Taser has been used in tactical situations
where a firearm is not warranted but where it is unsafe for an officer to approach within
contact range of the suspect and where previous attempts to control the suspect by more
conventional methods, such as verbal commands and compliance holds. have failed.
The Taser has been successful 80% of the time it has been used by the Los Angeles

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438

JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES

FIG. 3- TtI.H'T harb"," :mht'lhh'c/ ill trousers. fht' I 10 JI ""/fl. r:5.'; 10 3,""·mfln XII/irk makes the Taser
effectIve.
Police Depurtrncm. In those instances in which it JiJ not work. several reasons can be
advanced. the most important one probably being poor 1.:0111~l\':( between the barb and
the target. Some form of insulation can he present between ,hl.: skin and the barb which
would decrease or negate (he charge. Also. the charge delivered to the target can be
below the level required to freeze the subject because the batteries have run down or

there is some other electrical problem.
The energy source for the Tuser is provided bv a I).V nickel-cadmium battery. which
is capable of delivermg Sn 000 V at 20 mA. Electrical putscs an: produced by a capacitance
discharge similar III a photographic strobe and occur ut III rulsc:s per second and 0.3 J
per pulse. The pulses can he delivered continuously for several minutes hefore the battery
becomes discharged and the weapon is rendered ineffective. The average amount of
energy delivered 10 the target is approximately .3 W 121.
The physiological effect of the Tascr on the target subject should he immediate: however. a 3 to 5-s exposure to the current is recommended to ensure complete immobilization
and a sluggish recovery. This should allow the officers enough lime: to subdue and restrain
the subject. The electrical current causes tonic and clonic muscular contractions which
persist for as long as the current flows. The subject falls hI the ground helpless and
~ incapacitated: he or she: should be una ole to stand. move. ur resist in any way. The
generalized muscular contraction involves the entire skeletalmuscle system. If the suspect
is still able to resist after the current has heen turned off. the trigger can be depressed
again-as long 'IS the barbs arc still uttuchcd to the target. the muscle contractions will
begin again. Under ordinary circumstances this process is temporary and completely
reversible. The subject should recover completely and should sustain no permanent
afteraffects 131.

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The neuromuscular stimulation caused hy the electrical current is the result of depolarization of the muscle cells and is both painful and fatiguing. The level of current is
above the "let-go" level and therefore is of sufficient muunitudc to freeze or immobilize
the subject for as long: as the current is flowing [-II.
Electrical current can he converuentlv divided into three levels from the point of view
of human perception. The lowest level is called the "threshold of perception" and is the
level of electrical current at which an individual may fed a slight tingle but should have
no startle reaction. pain. or other ill effects. This level has been found to be 0.5 rnA for
a 6O~Hz current 15J)I. Currents above this level cause a startle reaction {51.
The next important level of current is called the "let-go" current and can be defined
as the maximum level of electrical current that an individual can tolerate and still be able
to let go of the electrical source hy using muscles directly stimulated bv the current [oJ. 71.
This leveJ has heen determined to he a minimum of l} rnA for men at 00 hz 181. Currents
in excess of one's let-go level are said to "freeze" the victim to the circuit {6.7J. Such
currents are vcry painful. frightening. and hard to endure. The average person is frozen
at a current level slightly in excess of the let-go level. Volunteers report that the current
is so painful and causes such severe muscular contractions that it is incapacitating [21.
The lezs of the volunteers huck Ie and they full to 'he ground: it takes several minutes
for a person to recover.
The lethal current level is the urnount of current ueccssarv to cause ventricular fibrillation. which is the most common mechanism of death associated with electrocution. The
amount of current necessary to cause vcruriculur fibnlhuion varies depending upon the
duration. frequency. and magnitude otthe current. It also depends upon the body weight
~.9,JOJ. The threshold for ventricular fibrillation has heen determined to be approxi\~.ltely 150 rnA for I sat 60 Hz Illl. For shocks applied for more than 2. s. the level is
.eheved 10 be 50 rnA 1/21.

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JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES

The Taser has an electrical output which ranges from 3 rnA [5] up to 10.9 rnA (3\.
These levels are well below the amount needed to cause ventricular fibrillation. Therefore.
there is a wide range of safety between the Taser output and the level of current necessary
to cause ventricular fibrillation. According to the U.S. Consumer Product Safely Commission. an alternating current of 60 to 120 rnA at 120 V and 60 Hz is necessary to cause
ventricular fibrillation. The available electrical current generated by the Taser is not
lethal when the weapon is used as directed on an average. healthy adult [31. The same
report cautions. however. that there may be cases of death because of individual susceptibiJiry. as is the case with any device that delivers an electric shock. The commission
points out that this margin of safety would be decreased in a person with arteriosclerotic
cardiovascular disease. who could be subject to cardiac decompensation from a combination of electrical shock and convulsive seizures. The margin of safety could also he
reduced if the duration of the current was prolonged.

Profile of the Victims
During the five-year period of 1983 through 1987. 16 deaths associated wirh the use
of the Taser gun were recorded in Los Angeles County. The deceased in each instance
was a young male between 20 and ..0 years of age. Mexican Americans accounted for 5
deaths. blacks for H. and whites for 3. Most had a criminal record usually associated with
buraiarv or druzs. All were known to abuse illicit drugs.
... Several had been incarcerated
at one time or another. They were unarmed or else armed with <J weapon usually not
considered dangerous. such as a screwdriver or a frying pan. Each was engaged in some
form of bizarre or unusual activity which necessitated calling the police; they were all
engaged in this activity when the police arrived.
The following is a list of the activities engaged in by the deceased when confronted by
the police: hugging and kissing a lamp post. pulling a telephone off the wall and brandishing it as a weapon. dancing in the street. stabbing the ground with a screwdriver.
destroying furniture. wrecking a motel room. fighting with and cursing at an unseen
individual. lying in the gutter with hands and feet flailing. walking erratically and blowing
on a whistle. driving erratically. shouting religious obscenities. creating a disturbance.
and jumping up and down on a parked cur.
In these activities the subject usually was acting alone and not threatening another
person except in two instances: in one case the subject was rhreatenmg his mother and
in another case a prowler trapped in an alley was attacking the police officers with a
frying pan. Individuals who are unarmed. acting in a bizarre or unusual fashion. and not
threatening any other person are usually considered by the police to be under the intluence
of PCP. Consistent with the policy of using the minimum amount of force necessary to
control a situation. the officers used Tasers to try to subdue the subject. In each case.
what starred out as a relatively benign situation escalated into a belligerent controntarion
with the police and eventually resulted in the death of the suspect.
Jurisdictionally. 10 cases occurred in the Los Angeles Police Department area." cases
in the los Angeles Sheriffs Department area. 1 case in Pomona. and 1 case in Beverly
Hills.
The causes of death are listed in Table I. as is the manner of death.
Taser wounds were seen on each body and ranged in number from one to eight.
Abrasions consistent with an altercation were noted in all 16 cases; in addition. 8 showed
contusions and" showed lacerations. Fractures were noted in .. cases and baton marks
in-one. Restraint marks were seen on the wrists and ankles in 8 cases. Gunshot wounds
were seen in 3 cases.
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cardiac arrest due
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Number of

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accident

hepatic necrosis 'IOU
renal failure due
10 acute cocaine
and chronic drug
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accident

cocaine.
henzoylccgomne.
ami morphine

2 days

1

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multiple gunshot
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homicide

PCP

15 min

3

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multiple gunshot
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homicide

none detected

15 min

2

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acute IJCP
intoxication

accident

alcohol and IICP

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alcohol, P('II, lind
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cardiac arrest
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Other pathology which was found at autopsy included an enlarged heart. which was
found in 4 instances. The largest heart weighed 535 g. One case showed degeneration
of the mitral valve: this person had a history of mitral valve prolapse. cardiac arrythmia.
and syncope. Other than pulmonary edema and congestion. no one showed any pulmonary lesions. One case showed hepatomegaly and one showed hepatic necrosis. Sickle
cell trait was observed in 1 case. needle tracks of the antecubital fossae in 3 cases. and
chronic pancreatitis in I case. One case showed an old healed fracture of the wrist with
a plate and screws in place. Only 5 of the 16 cases were free of other pathology.
PCP was found in Ii cases. cocaine in o. and amphetamine in one. In 13 of the 16 cases.
drugs were found in the system at the time of autopsy. No drugs were recovered in 3
cases. In one of these. the individual survived in jail for two days: in the other 2 cases
the individual died in the street.

Taser Pathology
Grossly. the lesion produced by the Taser barb consists of a superficial punctate penetration of the skin. which mayor may not be surrounded by erythema (Fig. 5). The
longer the interval of time between the Taser wound and death. the greater the erythema.
On the cut surface. the penetration extends to less than ~/~ in. (6A mm) and is usually
surrounded by a thin zone of homogeneously coagulated tissue.
In microscopic sections. subepidermal bullous formation at the margins of the punctate
wound. with separation of epidermis from the dermis. is noted. The nuclei of the epidermal cells show severe pyknosis. The dermis shows homogenization of the collagen
due to burn effect (Fig. 6).
The capillaries are dilated and filled with fluid: some even show occlusion. In some
cases there is extravasation of red cells below the homogenized area into subcutaneous
adipose tissue. An inflammatory cell infiltrate was not seen in any case; however. since

FIG. S-Section of skin showing a penetration wound from the Taser barb.

SECTION III: p.13
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Drugs. specificullv cocaine. PCP, or amphetamine. wen: found in aU but 3 cases. One
individual without drugs was initially pursued 1.1:-. a prowler. hut when trapped in an alley,
he displayed unusual behavior ami attacked the officers while wielding a metal frying
pan, Because of this behavior. he was considered to he under the influence of PCP by
the police officers. and it Tascr was fired at him. After the attempts to subdue him by
Taser had failed. the officers shot him to dcuth.
No drugs were found in the system ut autopsy in a second case. but the person had
been in jail for several day .. prior 10 his uuuck on prison guards. At that time. he displayed
bizarre and unusual behavior in that he pulled a telephone off the wall of the facility in
which he was housed i.IIlU begun III attack the gUiW.ls with it. A Tuscr was fired at him.
but it had little or no effect on his behavior. He was fin"lIy subdued by a choke hold
and expired shortly thcrcattcr. The cause lIt' dc.uh was listed ~IS cardiac decompensation
during restraining procedures with hlunt force trauma. Acute myocarditis was listed as
a contributing cause.

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JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES

A third case involved a young man who was jumping up and down on a car and
screaming incoherently. When police fired a Taser at him. he is reported to have remarked
"Ooh, feels so good." He began to fight the officers and was eventually shot to death.
Aside from injuries sustained in confrontation with the police and the use of the Taser.
these deaths vary only slightly from those caused solely hy cocaine or PCP. The higgest
difference is in the amount and type of injury sustained. All of the subjects of these cases
sustained injury in some form. varying from a few superficial abrasions to fatal gunshot
wounds. Deaths which occur solely from drugs do not, as a rule. have other wounds.
Because of the levels of drugs found. the cause of death could be attributed to an overdose
in 13 of the 16 cases.
The sudden death syndrome has been postulated as the mechanism of death in individuals who succumb after a manic combative state [/31. Such individuals die while being.
restrained. or shortly thereafter. and the deaths have been referred to as acute exhaustive
mania. Some reflect mechanism which begins in the state of mind of the victim is postulated as the mechanism of death in such cases [131. An adrenal hormone. epinephrine
or catecholamine. is secreted into the circulation and travels to the heart. The heart.
being very sensitive to such hormones while in a state of mania. may be triggered into
an episode of ventricular fibrillation [131Sudden death from cocaine psychosis has been postulated as the cause of death by
pathologists in Dade County. Florida. in cases of sudden unexpected death associated
with bizarre behavior and highly combative activity [J.JI.
The common thread to almost all in-custody cases in which the subject dies during or
after an altercation with the police and in which violent. combative. or bizarre behavior
is involved turns out to be drugs. The individual has a history of drug abuse or has drugs
found in his system at the time of death. The other factor is bizarre behavior. All of the
individuals in this series of cases displayed bizarre behavior: 13 out of 16 had cocaine.
PCP. or amphetamine in their system.
Although two cases were certified as being caused by electrical injury. in one of these
cases at least. the level of cocaine was sufficient to explain the death. This person was
standing in water and was hit with eight Taser darts. The number of dans should not he
a determining factor. since the electrical current is not cumulative. The pathologist handling the case took into consideration the number of darts as well as the fact that the
victim was standing in water during the confrontation. The fact that the electrical current
had little or no effect upon the victim was not considered. The effects of drugs apparently
also were not considered. No other reason for the death was found at autopsy; therefore.
this death clearly fits into the cocaine category.
The second case is another matter. In this instance. the subject had a history of heart
disease. A heart murmur was first noted at age 12. associated with fluttering and palpitations of the chest. Despite these findings. he was active in sports during his youth
and adolescence. Two years prior to his death. the subject was involved in a minor traffic
accident caused by an episode of syncope and cardiac arrthymia. He was admitted to a
hospital for evaluation where a Grade 1 to 2 systolic murmur was noted over the precordium and an electrocardiogram (EKG) showed atrial arrhythmia and premature beats.
Cardiology consultation noted syncope secondary to cardiac arrhythmia and mitral
regurgitation secondary to mitral valve prolapse. The patient was advised to have a
pacemaker implanted but he refused. He was discharged from the hospital with a diagnosis
of the sick sinus syndrome and a guarded prognosis because of the possibility of repeated
syncopal attacks and ventricular flbrillation.
At autopsy. an enlarged heart was noted with mucinous degeneration of the mitral
valve. On microscopic examination. there was noted mucinous degeneration of the mitral
valve area. eosinophilic fragmentation of the myocardium. and patchy foci of myocytolysis
and interstitial fibrosis in the heart tissue.

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PCP was also found in the blood. bile. and liver and. therefore. the cause of death
could be attributed to the PCP. However. the subject's heart condition was such that he
could have suffered a fatal arrhythmia from the PCP. the excitement. the electrical
stimulation. or a combination of any or aU of these factors. The cause of death was.

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therefore. certified as cardiac arrhythmia due to sick sinus syndrome. prolapse of the
mitral valve. and electrical (Taser) stimulation while under the influence of PCP.
The different causes of death listed in Table 1 indicate the confusion and uncertainty
in the minds of the pathologists who have the responsibility of completing the cases.
Even in the same office there was considerable variation in the wording• of the cause of
death. The same problem emerges again in the manner of death. In f.} cases the manner
of death was certified as homicide. while in 7 cases it was listed as an accident.
Injuries to the eve have been postulated as a result of the eyeball being punctured by
a dan [81. No case is reported here and none could be found in the literature. If a Taser
barb penetrates the globe of the eye and subsequent rupture of the globe occurs. then
blindness is a possibility. Electrical stimulation to the eye in such a case has also been
postulated to cause blindness [8).
Injuries to the skin caused by the barbs are not considered serious since they penetrate
only approximately '/4 in. (6.4 rnrn). No reports of skin injuries or complications were
found in the literature. Most of the known wounds have appeared in the chest. abdomen.
hack. or thighs. the large areas of the body where the police are instructed to fire the
darts. No reports of injuries to the neck. face. or other sensitive body areas have been
found. and none are reported in this group of cases,
A third major area of potential concern is injury from falls sustained during the period
of seizure and incapacitation. We did not encounter any deaths which could be attributed
~irectlY to a fall. In all 16 cases. the subjects sustained injuries which consisted mostly
..... of superficial abrasions. lacerations. and contusions. All of these injuries could be attributed to struggle with the police officers and not to a fall or another form of injury.
In most of the cases the injuries were clearlv• referable to some source other than falling•
utter being hit with a Taser.

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References

IJI .. Firearms-"Tascr Gun.' .• Criminal Law Reporter: Court Decisions and Proceedines.

Vol. :: 1.

IY77. p. 77.
121 Taser FUCI Sheet. Taser Systems. Inc..
131 Zylich. N.. "Taser Evaluation and Analysis.' U.S. Consumer Product Saietv Commission
lfemoralldum ,Vo. 530959. 19 Feb. 1976. p. 76.
{./1 Dalziel. C. F. and Lee. W. R.. "Lethal Electric Currents:' IEE£ Spectrum. Vol. fl. 1%9. pp.
..w-50.
151 Bernstein. T.. "Safety Criteria for Intended or Expected Nonlethal Electrical Shocks," Procudings. S.vmposium Oil Slectrical Siwek Salet.\' Criteria. Toronto. Ontario. Canada. Sept.
IYK3.
161 Bernstein. T.• "Electrocution and Fires Involving 1:!tJ/2-U1 V Appliances:' IEEE Transactions
on Industry and General Application. Vol. 19. 19M3. pp. 155-159.
Iii Dalziel. C. F. and Lee;. W. R.• "Reevaluation of Lethal Electric Currents:' I£E£ Transactions
011 hulustrv and GenH'al Application. Vol. 4. I%N. pp. 467-476.
181 Koscove. E. M .. 'The Taser Weapon: A New Emergency Medicine Problem:' Annals of
Emergen<:.v.Wedidne. Vol. 14. I'JK5. pp. 1:!05-12U8.
191 Ferris. L. P.• King. B. G. et ul., "Effect of Electric Shock on the Heart:' Transactions of the
American Institute
Electrical ElI,~ineering. Vol. 55. 1936. pp. 49M-515.

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{IOI Kouwenhoven. W. B.. Knickerbocker. G. G.. ami Chestnut. R. W.• ··A·C Shocks of Varying
Parameters Affecting the Hearl." Transactions oithe Ameri(:an Institute ul Electricol En/{ilIeerin~. Vol. 7M. It.J59. pp. Ih.3-lh9.
1111 Bernstein. T.. "Effects of Electricity and Lightning on Men and Animals." loumai oiForensic
Sciences. Vol. Ig. No. I. Jan. 1973. pp. 3-1l.
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448

JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES

Begelmeier. G. and Lee. W. R.; "New Considerations on the Threshold of Ventricular Fi1/21 brillation for AC shocks at 50-60 Hz." /££ ProctedinRs. Vol. 127. 1980. pp. 103-110.
Siddle. B. K. and Lapascta, E.. "Sudden Death Syndrome:' Police Product News. Aug. 1985.
(/31 Welli. C. V. and Fishbain. D. A.. "Cocaine'Induced Psychosis and Sudden Death in Recre(/41 ational Cocaine Users," Journal of Forensic Sciences. Vol. 30. 1985. pp. 873-880.
Address requests for reprints or additional informatlon to
Ronald N. Kornblum. Chief Medical Examiner-Coroner
Department of the Chief Medical Examiner·Coroner
1102 No. Mission Rd.. Rm. 216
Los Angeles. CA 90033

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